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RGO 2018 Review Season [email protected] LECTURE NOTES PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT Prepared and Screened by: Prof. Jose J. Pangngay, MS Psych, RPm CHAPTER I: BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING AND PROMINENT INDIVIDUALS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT A. Ancient Roots • Chinese Civilization – testing was instituted as a means of selecting who, of the many applicants, would obtain government jobs • Greek Civilization – tests were used to measure intelligence and physical skills • European Universities – these universities relied on formal exams in conferring degrees and honors B. Individual Differences • Charles Darwin – believed that despite our similarities, no two humans are exactly alike. Some of these individual differences are more “adaptive than others and these differences lead to more complex, intelligent organisms over time. • Francis Galton – he established the testing movement; introduced the anthropometric records of students; pioneered the application of rating-scale and questionnaire method, and the free association technique; he also pioneered the use of statistical methods for the analysis of psychological tests He used the Galton bar (visual discrimination length) and Galton whistle (determining the highest audible pitch). Moreover, he also noted that persons with mental retardation tend to have diminished ability to discriminate among heat, cold and pain. C. Early Experimental Psychologists • Johan Friedrich Herbart – Mathematical models of the mind; father of pedagogy as an academic discipline; went against Wundt • Ernst Heinrich Weber – sensory thresholds; just noticeable differences (JND) • Gustav Theodor Fechner – mathematics of sensory thresholds of experience; founder of psychophysics; considered one of the founders of experimental psychology; Weber-Fechner Law first to relate sensation and stimulus • Wilhelm Wundt – considered one of the founders of Psychology; first to setup a psychology laboratory • Edward Titchner – succeeded Wundt; brought Structuralism to America; his brain is still on display in the psychology department at Cornell • Guy Montrose Whipple – pioneer of human ability testing; conducted seminars that changed the field of psychological testing • Louis Leon Thurstone – large contributor of factor analysis; approach to measurement was termed as the law of comparative judgment D. The Study of Mental Deficiency and Intelligence Testing (Theories of Intelligence) • Jean Esquirol – provided the first accurate description of mental retardation as an entity separate from insanity. • Edouard Seguin – pioneered modern educational methods for teaching people who are mentally retarded/intellectually disabled • James McKeen Cattell – an American psychologist who coined the term “mental test” • Alfred Binet – the father of IQ testing • Lewis M. Terman – introduced the concept of IQ as determined by the mental age and chronological age IQ Classification according to the Stanford-Binet 5 (* reflects extended IQ scores) *176-225 : Profoundly Gifted *161-175 : Extremely Gifted 145-160 : Very Gifted 130-144 : Gifted 120-129 : Superior 110-119 : High Average 90-109 : Average 80-89 : Low Average 70-79 : Borderline Impaired 55-69 : Mildly Impaired 40-54 : Moderately Impaired *25-39 : Severely Impaired *10-24 : Profoundly Impaired • Charles Spearman – introduced the two-factor theory of intelligence (General ability or “g” – required for performance on mental tests of all kinds; and Special abilities or “s” – required for performance on mental test of only one kind) • Thurstone – Primary Mental Abilities • David Wechsler – Wechsler Intelligence Tests (WISC, WAIS) • Raymond Cattell – introduced the components of “g” (Fluid “g” – ability to see relationships as in analogies and letter and number series, also known as the primary reasoning ability which decreases with age; and Crystallized “g” – acquired knowledge and skills which increases with age) • Guilford – theorized the “many factor intelligence theory” (6 types of operations X 5 types of contents X 6 types of products = 180 elementary abilities) • Vernon and Carroll – introduced the hierarchical approach in “g” • Sternberg – introduced the “3 g’s” (Academic g, Practical g, and Creative g) • Howard Gardner – conceptualized the multiple intelligences theory • Henry Goddard – translated the Binet-Simon test into French
RGO 2018 Review Season [email protected] E. World War I • Robert Yerkes – pioneered the first group intelligence test known as the Army Alpha (for literate) and Army Beta (for functionally illiterate) • Arthur S. Otis – introduced multiple choice and other “objective” item type of tests • Robert S. Woodworth – devised the Personal Data Sheet (known as the first personality test) which aimed to identify soldiers who are at risk for shell shock F. Personality Testers • Herman Rorschach – slow rise of projective testing; Rorschach Inkblot Test • Henry Murray & Christina Morgan – Thematic Apperception Test • Early 1940’s – structure tests were being developed based on their better psychometric properties • Raymond B. Cattell – 16 Personality Factors • McCrae & Costa – Big 5 Personality Factors G. Psychological Testing in the Philippines • Virgilio Enriquez – Panukat ng Ugali at Pagkatao or PUP • Aurora R. Palacio – Panukat ng Katalinuhang Pilipino or PKP • Anadaisy Carlota – Panukat ng Pagkataong Pilipino or PPP • Gregorio E.H. Del Pilar – Masaklaw na Panukad ng Loob or Mapa ng Loob • Alfredo Lagmay – Philippine Thematic Apperception Test (PTAT) CHAPTER II: PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT A. Objectives of Psychometrics 1. To measure behavior (overt and covert) 2. To describe and predict behavior and personality (traits, states, personality types, attitudes, interests, values, etc.) 3. To determine signs and symptoms of dysfunctionality (for case formulation, diagnosis, and basis for intervention/plan for action) B. Psychological Testing vs. Psychological Assessment Psychological Testing Psychological Assessment Objective Typically, to obtain some gauge, usually numerical in nature, with regard to an ability or attribute Typically to answer a referral question, solve a problem, or arrive at a decision through the use of tools of evaluation. Focus How one person or group compares with others (nomothetic) The uniqueness of a given individual, group, or situation (idiographic) Process Testing may be individual or group in nature. After test administration, the tester will typically add up “the number of correct answers or the number of certain types of responses... with little if any regard for the how or mechanics of such content” Assessment is typically individualized. In contrast to testing, assessment more typically focuses on how an individual processes rather than simply the results of that processing. Role of Evaluator The tester is not the key to the process; practically speaking, one tester may be substituted for another tester without appreciably affecting the evaluation. The assessor is the key to the process of selecting tests and/or other tools of evaluation as well as in drawing conclusions from the entire evaluation. Skill of Evaluator Testing typically requires technician-like skills in terms of administering and scoring a test as well as in interpreting a test result. Assessment typically requires an educated selection of tools of evaluation, skill in evaluation, and thoughtful organization and integration of data. Outcome Typically, testing yields a test score or series of test scores. Typically, assessment entails a logical problem-solving approach that brings to bear many sources of data designed to shed light on a referral question. Duration Shorter, lasting from few minutes to few hours Longer, lasting from a few hours to a few days or more Sources of Data One person, the test taker only Often collateral sources, such as relatives or teachers, are used in addition to the subject of the assessment Qualification for Use Knowledge of tests and testing procedures Knowledge of testing and other assessment methods as well as of the specialty area assessed (psychiatric disorders, job requirements, etc.) Cost Inexpensive, especially when group testing is done Very expensive, requires intensive use of highly qualified professionals C. Assumptions about Psychological Testing and Assessment 1. Psychological traits and states exist. • Trait - characteristic behaviors and feelings that are consistent and long lasting. • State -temporary behaviors or feelings that depend on a person's situation and motives at a particular time 2. Psychological traits and states can be quantified and measured. 3. Test-related behavior predicts non-test-related behavior. • Postdict it - To estimate or suppose something which took place in past; to conjecture something that occurred beforehand • Predict - say or estimate that (a specified thing) will happen in the future or will be a consequence of something 4. Tests and other measurement techniques have strengths and weaknesses. 5. Various sources of error are part of the assessment process. • Error – long standing assumption that factors other than what a test attempts to measure will influence performance on the test • Error variance – the component of test score attributable to sources other than the trait or ability being measured 6. Testing and assessment can be conducted in a fair and unbiased manner. 7. Testing and assessment benefit society.
RGO 2018 Review Season [email protected] D. Tools of Psychological Assessment 1. Psychological Tests – a standardized measuring device or procedure used to describe the ability, knowledge, skills or attitude of the individual • Measurement – the process of quantifying the amount or number of a particular occurrence of event, situation, phenomenon, object or person • Assessment – the process of synthesizing the results of measurement with reference to some norms and standards • Evaluation – the process of judging the worth of any occurrence of event, situation, phenomenon, object or person which concludes with a particular decision 2. Interviews – a tool of assessment in which information is gathered through direct, reciprocal communication. Has three types (structured, unstructured and semi-structured). 3. Portfolio Assessment – a type of work sample is used as an assessment tool 4. Case-History Data – records, transcripts, and other accounts in any media that preserve archival information, official and informal accounts, and other data and items relevant to the assessee 5. Behavioral Observation – monitoring the actions of other or oneself by visual or electronic means while recording qualitative and/or quantitative information regarding those actions, typically for diagnostic or related purposes and either to design intervention or to measure the outcome of an intervention. E. Parties in Psychological Assessment 1. Test Authors and Developer – create tests or other methods of assessment 2. Test Publishers – they publish, market, and sell tests, thus controlling their distribution 3. Test Reviewers – they prepare evaluative critiques of tests based on their technical and practical merits 4. Test Users – professionals such as clinicians, counselors, school psychologists, human resource personnel, consumer psychologists, experimental psychologists, social psychologists, etc. that use these tests for assessment 5. Test Sponsors – institutional boards or government agencies who contract test developers or publishers for a various testing services 6. Test Takers – those who are taking the tests; those who are subject to assessment 7. Society at Large F. Three-Tier System of Psychological Tests 1. Level A – these tests are those that can be administered, scored and interpreted by responsible non-psychologist who have carefully read the manual and are familiar with the overall purpose of testing. Educational achievement tests fall into this category. – Examples: Achievement tests and other specialized (skill-based) aptitude tests 2. Level B – these tests require technical knowledge of test construction and use of appropriate advanced coursework in psychology and related courses – examples: Group intelligence tests and personality tests 3. Level C – these tests require an advanced degree in Psychology or License as Psychologist and advanced training/supervised experience in a particular test (Examples: Projective tests, Individual Intelligence tests, Diagnostic tests) G. General Types of Psychological Tests According to Variable Measured 1. Ability Tests - Assess what a person can do - Includes Intelligence Tests, Achievement Tests and Aptitude Tests - Best conditions are provided to elicit a person’s full capacity or maximum performance - There are right and wrong answers - Objective of motivation: for the examinee to do his best 2. Tests of Typical Performance - Assess what a person usually does - Includes personality tests, interest/attitude/values inventories - Typical performance can still manifest itself even in conditions not deemed as best - There are no right or wrong answers - Objective of motivation: for the examinee to answer questions honestly H. Specific Types of Psychological Tests 1. Intelligence Test – measures general potential – Assumption: fewer assumptions about specific prior learning experiences – Validation process: Content Validity and Construct Validity – examples: WAIS, WISC, CFIT, RPM 2. Aptitude Test – Measures an individual’s potential for learning a specific task, ability or skill – Assumption: No assumptions about specific prior learning experiences – Validation process: Content validity and Predictive Validity – Examples: DAT, SATT 3. Achievement Test – This test provides a measure for the amount, rate and level of learning, success or accomplishment, strengths/weaknesses in a particular subject or task – Assumption: Assumes prior relatively standardized educational learning experiences – Validation process: Content validity – Example: National Achievement Test 4. Personality Test – measures traits, qualities, attitudes or behaviors that determine a person’s individuality – can measure overt or covert dispositions and levels of adjustment as well – can be measured idiographically (unique characteristics) or nomothetically (common characteristics)
RGO 2018 Review Season [email protected] – has three construction strategies namely: theory-guided inventories, factor-analytically derived inventories, criterion-keyed inventories – examples: NEOPI, 16PF, MBTI, MMPI 5. Interest Inventory – Measures an individual’s performance for certain activities or topics and thereby help determine occupational choice or make career decisions – Measure the direction and strength of interest – Assumption: Interests though unstable, have a certain stability or else it cannot be measured – Stability is said to start at 17 years old – Broad lines of interests are more stable while specific lines of interests are more unstable, they can change a lot. – Example: CII 6. Attitude Inventory – Direct observation on how a person behaves in relation to certain things – Attitude questionnaires or scales (Bogardus Social Distance Scale, 1925) – Reliabilities are good but not as high as those of tests of ability – Attitude measures have not generally correlated very highly with actual behavior – Specific behaviors, however, can be predicted from measures of attitude toward the specific behavior 7. Values Inventory – Purports to measure generalized and dominant interests – Validity is extremely difficult to determine by statistical methods – The only observable criterion is overt behavior – Employed less frequently than interest in vocational counseling and career decision-making 8. Diagnostic Test – This test can uncover and focus attention on weaknesses of individuals for remedial purposes 9. Power Test – Requires an examinee to exhibit the extent or depth of his understanding or skill – Test with varying level of difficulty 10. Speed Test – Requires the examinee to complete as many items as possible – Contains items of uniform and generally simple level of difficulty 11. Creativity Test – A test which assesses an individual’s ability to produce new/original ideas, insights or artistic creations that are accepted as being social, aesthetic or scientific value – Can assess the person’s capacity to find unusual or unexpected solutions for vaguely defined problems 12. Neuropsychological Test – Measures cognitive, sensory, perceptual and motor performance to determine the extent, locus and behavioral consequences of brain damage, given to persons with known or suspected brain dysfunction – Example: Bender-Gestalt II 13. Objective Test – Standardized test – Administered individually or in groups – Objectively scored – There are limited number of responses – Uses norms – There is a high level of reliability and validity – Examples: Personality Inventories, Group Intelligence Test 14. Projective Test – Test with ambiguous stimuli which measures wishes, intrapsychic conflicts, dreams and unconscious motives – Projective tests allow the examinee to respond to vague stimuli with their own impressions – Assumption is that the examinee will project his unconscious needs, motives, and conflicts onto the neutral stimulus – Administered individually and scored subjectively – Have 5 types/techniques: Completion Technique, Expressive Technique, Association Technique, Construction Technique, Choice or Ordering Technique – With low levels of reliability and validity – Examples: Rorschach Inkblot Test, TAT, HTP, SSCT, DAP 15. Norm-Referenced Test – raw scores are converted to standard scores 16. Criterion-Referenced Test – raw scores are referenced to specific cut-off scores ***Clinical Differences Between Projective Tests and Psychometric (Objective Tests) Point of Comparison/Difference Projective Test Psychometric Test Definiteness of Task Allows variation in responses and recall more individualized response pattern Subjects are judged in very much the same basis Response Choice vs. Constructed Response The subject gives whatever response seems fitting within the range allowed by the test direction It can be more objectively scored and does not depend on fluency or expressive skills Response vs. Product Watches the subject at work from a general direction It concerns itself with the tangible product of performance Analysis of Results Gross score could still be supplemented by investigation of the individual’s reaction and opinion Makes analysis of individual response Formal scoring plays large part in scoring the test Measured in standard norms Emphasis on Critical Validation The tester is satisfied in comparing impression based on one procedure with impression gained from another The tester accompanies every numerical score with a warning regarding the error of the measurement and every prediction with an index that shows how likely it is to come true