Tiêu đề Tổng ôn Crtitical Thinking.docx ✅

TỔNG ÔN CRITICAL THINKING No. Topic Chapter Exercises 1 Understand the process of argument development 1 Ex. 1.1, 1.3, 1.4, 1.14, 1.16 2 2 kinds of reasoning 2 Ex. 2.1 – 2.17 3 Quality of reasoning: Clear thinking- Clarity, ambiguity 3 Ex. 3.1-3.15 4 Build credibility, using evidence to support claims in arguments. Persuasion through rhetoric 4; 5 Ex. 4.2, 4.3, 4.7, 4.10, 4.12 Ex. 5.1, 5.3, 5.4, 5.8, 5.9, 5.11, 5.13, 5.15, 5.20 5.2; 5.5. 5 Identify and handle fallacies, bias, emotion, and propaganda: Relevance Fallacies 6 Ex.6 6 Identify and handle fallacies, bias, emotion, and propaganda: Induction Fallacies 7 Ex.7 7 Identify and handle fallacies: Formal Fallacies and Fallacies of language 8 Ex. 8.1-8.4 8 Deductive argument 9; 10 Ex. 9.1-9.8; 9.13-9.19; 9.21, 9.24 Ex 10.1, 10.4, 10.8, 10.9, 10.10, 10.12, 10.14, 10.15, 10.16, 10.22 (Midterm test) 9 Inductive reasoning 11 Ex. 11.1, 11.2, 11.6, 11.10, 11.13, 11.14, 11.17, 11.20, 11.22, 11.23, 11.24, 11.26, 11.29, 11.33, 11.34, 11.38 TOPIC 1: UNDERSTAND THE PROCESS OF ARGUMENT DEVELOPMENT
1. Critical thinking involves three things: (1) claims, (2) issues, and (3) arguments. (1) Claims are any statement of fact, belief, opinion, etc. For example: ● “You need to use an umbrella today.” ● “You should become a doctor.” ● “You can only be happy if you own a fancy new car or buy a nice pair of shoes” - Objective claim vs. subjective claim: An objective claim is true or false regardless of whether people think it is true or false. Claims that lack this property are said to be subjective. - “Fact vs. opinion”: People sometimes refer to true objective claims as “facts,” and use the word “opinion” to designate any claim that is subjective. - “Factual claim”: An objective claim. Saying that a claim is “factual” is not the same as saying it is true. A factual claim is simply a claim whose truth does not depend on our thinking it is true. - Moral subjectivism: Moral subjectivism is the idea that moral judgments are subjective. “There is nothing either good or bad but that thinking makes it so.” (2) Issues: A question regarding the validity of a claim. Example: Claim: “You need to use an umbrella today.” or “You don’t need to use an umbrella today.” => Issue: Do I need to use an umbrella today? (3) Arguments: A set of statements/claims providing reasons for believing that a claim is true. All arguments have 2 components: ● Premise (P): the reason for believing a claim is true. ● Conclusion (C): the answer to the issue. For example: Issue: Should you get a dog? Claim: I should get a dog. Argument: A dog would keep me company; so I should get one. Premise => Conclusion 2. Cognitive bias: A feature of human psychology that skews belief formation. (Thiên kiến nhận thức là sai sót có tính hệ thống trong nhận thức của một người, điều này sẽ ảnh hưởng tới lựa chọn và phán đoán của họ.) The ones discussed in this chapter include the following: ● Belief bias: Evaluating reasoning by how believable its conclusion is. ● Confirmation bias: A tendency to attach more weight to considerations that support our views. ● Availability heuristic: Assigning a probability to an event based on how easily or frequently it is thought of. ● False consensus effect: Assuming our opinions and those held by people around us are shared by society at large.
● Bandwagon effect: The tendency to align our beliefs with those of other people. ● Negativity bias: Attaching more weight to negative information than to positive information. ● Loss aversion: Being more strongly motivated to avoid a loss than to accrue a gain. ● In-group bias: A set of cognitive biases that make us view people who belong to our group differently from people who don’t. ● Fundamental attribution error: Having one understanding of the behavior of people in the in-group and another for people not in the in-group. ● Obedience to authority: A tendency to comply with instructions from an authority. ● Overconfidence effect: A cognitive bias that leads us to overestimate what percentage of our answers on a subject are correct. ● Better-than-average illusion: A self-deception cognitive bias that leads us to overestimate our own abilities relative to those of others.
TOPIC 2: TWO KINDS OF REASONING 1. Indicators of premise, conclusion, deductive/inductive arguments ● Indicators of premise: Since… For… In view of… This is implied by… ● Indicators of conclusion: Thus… Consequently… Therefore… So… Hence… Accordingly… This shows that … This implies that… This suggests that… This proves that… ● Indicators of deductive arguments: - certainly it logically follows that - definitely it is logical to conclude that - absolutely this logically implies that - conclusively this entails that - it necessarily follows that ● Indicators of inductive arguments: - probably one would expect that - likely it is a good bet that - it is plausible to suppose that chances are that - it is reasonable to assume that odds are that 2. Two kinds of arguments: deductive and inductive. A deductive argument is used to prove a claim, while an inductive argument is used to support a claim. ● Deductive argument: is used to demonstrate or prove a conclusion, which it does if it is sound. - An argument is valid if the premises were true, the conclusion could not be false. Here is the structure of a valid argument: