Title Lecture #19.docx ✅

Antibiotics: What is an Antibiotic? Antibiotics are a class of drugs used to treat bacterial infections by either killing bacteria or inhibiting their growth. They are crucial in modern medicine for treating various infections, preventing disease spread, and aiding in medical procedures. How Antibiotics are Made? Natural Production: 1. Microorganisms: Many antibiotics are derived from natural compounds produced by fungi and bacteria. For example, Penicillin is produced by the Penicillium mold. 2. Fermentation: The producing microorganisms are cultured in large fermentation tanks. Conditions are optimized for maximum production of the antibiotic compound. Semi-synthetic Production: Chemical Modification: Naturally occurring antibiotics are chemically modified to enhance their properties, such as increasing their effectiveness or spectrum of activity. An example is the modification of natural Penicillin to create Amoxicillin. Synthetic Production: Chemical Synthesis: Some antibiotics are entirely synthesized through chemical processes. These antibiotics do not originate from natural compounds but are designed and produced in laboratories. Functions of Antibiotics Treating Bacterial Infections: Effective against bacterial pathogens causing infections such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, and strep throat.
Preventing Infection: Used prophylactically in surgeries and certain medical procedures to prevent infections. Specific Targeting: Antibiotics can target specific bacterial structures or functions, such as cell wall synthesis, protein synthesis, and DNA replication, without affecting human cells. Combating Disease Spread: Helps control the spread of infectious diseases by effectively treating infected individuals. Supporting Immune System: Helps the body's immune system overcome bacterial infections by reducing the bacterial load. Types of Antibiotics Beta-Lactams:  Penicillins: Includes Penicillin, Amoxicillin, and Ampicillin. They work by inhibiting cell wall synthesis.  Cephalosporins: Includes Cephalexin and Ceftriaxone. They are structurally similar to penicillins but have a broader spectrum of activity. Macrolides:  Erythromycin: Used for respiratory infections and skin infections.  Azithromycin: Known for its long half-life and used to treat various infections, including respiratory and sexually transmitted infections. Fluoroquinolones:  Ciprofloxacin: Broad-spectrum antibiotic effective against a variety of bacteria.
 Levofloxacin: Used for respiratory and urinary tract infections. Tetracyclines:  Tetracycline: Used for acne and respiratory tract infections.  Doxycycline: Effective against a wide range of bacterial infections, including Lyme disease and chlamydia. Aminoglycosides:  Gentamicin: Used for severe infections like sepsis.  Tobramycin: Commonly used for eye infections and in cystic fibrosis. Sulfonamides: Sulfamethoxazole: Often combined with Trimethoprim to treat urinary tract infections and other bacterial infections. Glycopeptides: Vancomycin: Used for serious infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria, including MRSA. Oxazolidinones: Linezolid: Effective against multi-drug resistant Gram-positive bacteria. Lincosamides: Clindamycin: Used for anaerobic bacterial infections and some protozoal diseases.
Vaccines: A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious disease. Vaccines stimulate the body's immune system to recognize and fight pathogens, such as bacteria or viruses, without causing the disease itself. How Vaccines are Made? Antigen Generation: Virus/Bacteria Growth: The pathogen (virus or bacteria) is grown in cells (e.g., chicken eggs, mammalian cells) or in culture media. For viruses, this often involves using eggs or cell cultures. Protein Production: For subunit vaccines, specific proteins from the pathogen are produced using recombinant DNA technology in cells like yeast or bacteria. Antigen Isolation: Purification: The pathogen or its components (antigens) are isolated and purified from the culture media. This may involve filtration, chromatography, and other purification techniques. Antigen Inactivation or Attenuation: Inactivation: Pathogens are killed using chemicals like formaldehyde or heat (inactivated vaccines). Attenuation: Pathogens are weakened so they cannot cause disease but still provoke an immune response (live attenuated vaccines). Formulation: Adjuvants: Substances that enhance the body’s immune response to the vaccine are added. Stabilizers: Added to preserve the vaccine's efficacy during storage.