Title 02 DevPsy - Theories and Research Methods.pdf ✅

02 – Theories and Research Methods DVPSY | 2024 - 2025 | NOT FOR SALE OUTLINE 1. Basic Theoretical Issues a. Active vs. Reactive b. Continuity vs. Discontinuity 2. Theoretical Perspectives a. Psychoanalytic Perspective b. Learning Perspective c. Cognitive Perspective d. Contextual Perspective e. Ethological Perspective f. Other Developmental Theories 3. Research Methods a. Research Designs b. Challenges BASIC THEORETICAL ISSUES IS DEVELOPMENT ACTIVE OR REACTIVE? Active Development — people create experiences for themselves and are motivated to learn about the world around them ● Jean Jacques Rousseau: noble savages — develop naturally if not corrupted by society ○ Father of developmental psychology ○ Children are intrinsically good and develop in a natural plan which unfold at different stages ○ Forerunner of Nativist Approach ● Organismic Model: people as active, growing organisms that set their own development in motion ● People initiate and react to events Reactive Development — people are shaped by input from their environment ● John Locke: tabula rasa — blank slate ○ Believed that all children are born equal ○ Forerunner of Empiricism ● Mechanistic Model: people are viewed as machines that react to their environment ● Emphasis on the influence of the experiences (input) on behavior (output) IS DEVELOPMENT CONTINUOUS OR DISCONTINUOUS? Continuous Development — views development as gradual and incremental ● Quantitative Change: involves numbers / measurement ● Ex. Height, Weight Discontinuous Development — views development as abrupt or uneven ● Qualitative Change: marked by the emergence of new phenomenon that cannot be easily predicted on the basis of past functioning ● Stage Theories: development is seen as occurring in a series of distinct stages ● Stages cannot be skipped, and development only proceeds in a positive direction ● Ex. Psychosexual Development THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES SUMMARY OF THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ● Behavioral Perspectives ○ Observable behaviors and environmental determinants ○ Development as a function of learned behaviors ● Ethological Perspectives ○ Development as a process of adaptation ○ Behaviors common to all children from different cultures ○ Childhood behaviors result from the need to survive and adapt ● Ecological Perspectives ○ Development is influenced by environmental systems that a child actively participates and belongs in ○ Bronfenbrenner’s Systems Theory ● Psychoanalytic Perspectives ○ Behavior stems from unconscious processes and early family experiences ○ Manifest in dreams, slips of speech, mannerisms, and emotional problems PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE ★ Theories that describe development as primarily unconscious and greatly shaped by early childhood experiences Psychosexual Theory — emphasized the role of unconscious drives and early childhood in human development ● Proposed by Sigmund Freud ● People are born with a series of innate, biologically based drives (ex. sex, hunger, aggression) which must be satisfied in order for development to occur and adult personality to form ○ Fixation: an arrest in development caused by the over/under gratification ○ Results in the development of certain disorders 1 | @studywithky
● Focus of pleasure and sexual impulses shifts from the mouth to the anus and eventually to the genitals as children grow up ● “The child is the father of the man” PROVINCE DESCRIPTION Id Source of primitive drives / impulses Governed by the Pleasure Principle and Primary Process Thought Ego Intermediary between Id and Superego Governed by the Reality Principle, Primary Narcissism, and Secondary Process Thought Superego Ethical component of personality Involves the rewarding and punishing function (Conscience) Begins as harsh / unrealistic when it came to demands 1. Oral Stage (0-2) ● Stage in development governed by the Id ● Source of pleasure is from breastfeeding ○ Oral Fixation: persistent need for oral gratification ○ Oral Passive: (under gratification) trusting and dependent ○ Oral Aggressive: (over gratification) dominating, hostile, and verbally abusive 2. Anal Stage (2-3) ● Ego gradually develops ● Source of pleasure is from expelling (push) or withholding (pull) (toilet training) ○ Anal Retentive: (lenient) tidy and obsessive ○ Anal Expulsive: (strict) untidy and generous ● Anal Triad: parsimoniousness, obstinacy, and orderliness 3. Phallic Stage (3-6) ● Superego gradually develops and marked by libido ● Children at this stage tend to explore genital area (ex. masturbation) ● Understanding of anatomical sex differences begins to form resulting in Male/Female Oedipus Complex ○ Fixation in men: anxiety about sexual performance, need for reassurance and validation, tendency to be overly assertive/aggressive ○ Fixation in women: desire to dominate men, a rivalry with other women, or the need for male attention or approval 4. Latency Stage (6-12) ● Stage of development where the libido is dormant / suppressed ● Sexual energy shifts to academics, relationships, and hobbies/interests 5. Genital Stage (12 onwards) ● Stage in development where the libido re-emerges ● Energy shifts to heterosexual relationships ● This period marks the onset of romantic and sexual emotions, leading to the formation of intimate relationships STAGE EROGENOUS ZONE Oral Stage (birth to 2) Mouth (sucking and feeding for nourishment) Substages - Oral Receptive (sucking phase) - Oral Sadistic (biting phase) Anal Stage (2 to 3) Anus (withholding and expelling feces) Toilet Training - Strict → Anal Retentive - Lenient → Anal Expulsive Anal Triad - Obstinacy - Stinginess - Orderliness Phallic Stage (3 to 6) Genitals (masturbation is normal at this stage) Male Oedipus Complex - Begins w/ castration anxiety - Boy identifies w/ father and is attracted to mother - All are born bisexual Female Oedipus Complex - Begins w/ penis envy - Penis envy is rooted in the idea that everyone should have a penis - Hostility is directed to the mother for the lack of penis - Attraction is focused on the father Latency Stage (6 to puberty) Repression (focus on social and intellectual skills) aka Psychosexual-dormant Genital Stage (puberty onward) Someone outside the family (heterosexual awakening) Psychosocial Theory — extension of Freud’s psychosexual theory that emphasizes the influence of social interactions ● Proposed by Erik Erikson 2 | @studywithky

● Intermittent Schedule – best in RETAINING behaviors ● Continuous Scheduled – best in teaching NEW behaviors SCHEDULE OCCURRENCE OF REINFORCEMENT Ratio Interval Fixed Reward is administered after a fixed number of responses is made Ex. Output-based performance Reward is administered after a fixed length of time Ex. Payroll Variable (Unspecifi ed) Reward is administered after a varying number of responses is made Ex. Game level advancement Reward is administered at varied lengths of time Ex. Slot machine Classical Conditioning — learning based on associating a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a response with another stimulus that does elicit the response ● Proposed by Ivan Pavlov ● Illustrated by an experiment conducted by Pavlov ★ If you pair a neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that already triggers an unconditioned response (UR), that neutral stimulus will become a conditioned stimulus (CS), triggering a conditioned response (CR) similar to the original unconditioned response 1. Before Conditioning ● The NS elicits no response from the dog while the US triggers the dog to salivate ○ NS: Bell ○ US: Meat Powder → UR: Salivation 2. During Conditioning ● NS is paired with the US repeatedly to produce a CR from the dog ○ NS: Bell → CR: Salivation ○ US: Meat Powder 3. After Conditioning ● After repeated exposure to the NS and US, the NS now triggers the dog to salivate (CR) ○ NS: Bell → CS: Bell → CR: Salivation ○ Generalization: dog generalizes the response to a similar stimulus ○ Discrimination: learned tendency to respond to the stimulus used in training ● Extinction: weakening of CR where the CS repeatedly occurs without the US ● Spontaneous Recovery: reappearance of CR when CS is presented again after extinction 4. Higher-Order Conditioning ● Happens when a when a neutral stimulus becomes linked to a conditioned stimulus ● Stimulus is first made meaningful or consequential for an organism through an initial step of learning, and then that stimulus is used as a basis for learning about some new stimulus Social Cognitive Theory — learning based on the human characteristic of plasticity, which is influenced by extrinsic and intrinsic factors ● Proposed by Albert Bandura ● Argued that people have the capacity to regulate their lives through the Triadic Reciprocal Causation Model ○ Takes an agentic approach wherein people are both the producers and products of social systems ○ People regulate their behavior through moral agency ● Observational Learning: learning by observing and imitating ● Reciprocal Determinism: argues that there is an interplay between our personality, how we interpret events, and how they influence us Principles that Influence Modeling ★ People are most likely to model high-status people 4 | @studywithky