Title BME 12 CH6 Narrative of Discussion.pdf ✅

BME 12 Lecture Notes Kingfisher School of Business and Finance, Inc. Version 1 Series of 2025 BME 12: Human Behavior in Organization “This handout is for academic purposes ONLY” Prepared by: Mark Jeffrey B. Aquino (BME 12 Instructor) BME 12: HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATION II. Individual Behaviors and Organization Processes in Organization Chapter 6: Motivating Behavior with Work and Rewards (Narrative of Discussion) Book Reference: Organizational Behavior: Managing People and Organization Author: Ricky Griffin, Jean Phillips, Stanley Gully I. JOB DESIGN IN ORGANIZATIONS Job design is an important method manager can use to enhance employee performance. Job design can be defined as how organizations define and structure jobs. The first widespread model of how individual work should be designed was job specialization. A. Job Specialization Frederick Taylor, the chief proponent of job specialization, argued that jobs should be scientifically studied, broken down into small component tasks, and then standardized across all workers doing those jobs. On the surface, job specialization appears to be a rational and efficient way to structure jobs. In practice, however, performing those jobs can cause problems, foremost among them the extreme monotony of highly specialized tasks. A worker numbed by boredom and monotony may be less motivated to work hard and more inclined to do poor-quality work or to complain about the job. For these reasons, managers began to search for job design alternatives to specialization. B. Basic Alternative to Job Specialization Managers initially developed two alternative approaches, job rotation and job enlargement. These approaches, along with job enrichment, remain common today. 1. Job Rotation Job rotation involves systematically shifting workers from one job to another to sustain their motivation and interest. Job rotation does not entirely address long-term issues of monotony and boredom and may decrease efficiency. At the same time, job rotation is an effective training technique because a worker rotated through a variety of related jobs acquires a larger set of job skills. Thus, there is increased flexibility in transferring workers to new jobs. 2. Job Enlargement Job enlargement, or horizontal job loading, is expanding a worker’s job to include tasks previously performed by other workers. The logic behind this change is that the increased number of tasks in each job reduces monotony and boredom. Unfortunately, job enlargement also failed to have the desired effects. Generally, if the entire production sequence consisted of simple, easy-to- master tasks, merely doing more of them did not significantly change the worker’s job. 3. Job Enrichment Job rotation and job enlargement seemed promising but eventually disappointed managers seeking to counter the ill effects of extreme specialization. Job enrichment is based on the two-factor theory of motivation, which is discussed in Chapter 5. That theory contends that employees can be motivated by positive job-related experiences such as feelings of achievement, responsibility, and recognition. To achieve these, job enrichment relies on vertical job loading—not only adding more tasks to a job, as in horizontal loading, but also giving the employee more control over those tasks. Some companies have found job enrichment to be cost ineffective, and others believe that it simply did not produce the expected results. Some of the criticism is associated with flaws in the two-factor theory of motivation on which job enrichment is based. Because of these and other problems, job enrichment is not as popular as it was a few years ago. C. The Job Characteristics Theory The job characteristics theory uses five motivational properties of tasks and three critical psychological states to improve outcomes.
BME 12 Lecture Notes Kingfisher School of Business and Finance, Inc. Version 1 Series of 2025 BME 12: Human Behavior in Organization “This handout is for academic purposes ONLY” Prepared by: Mark Jeffrey B. Aquino (BME 12 Instructor) The theory, diagrammed in Figure 6.2 and developed by Hackman and Oldham, focuses on the specific motivational properties of jobs. At the core of the theory is the idea of critical psychological states. These states are presumed to determine the extent to which characteristics of the job enhance employee responses to the task. The three critical psychological states are: 1. Experienced meaningfulness of the work: the degree to which the individual experiences the job as generally meaningful, valuable, and worthwhile 2. Experienced responsibility for work outcomes: the degree to which individuals feel personally accountable and responsible for the results of their work 3. Knowledge of results: the degree to which individuals continuously understand how effectively they are performing the job If employees experience these states at a sufficiently high level, they are likely to feel good about themselves and to respond favorably to their jobs. Hackman and Oldham suggest that the three critical psychological states are triggered by the following five characteristics of the job, or core job dimensions: 1. Skill variety: the degree to which the job requires a variety of activities that involve different skills and talents 2. Task identity: the degree to which the job requires completion of a “whole” and an identifiable piece of work; that is, the extent to which a job has a beginning and an end with a tangible outcome 3. Task significance: the degree to which the job affects the lives or work of other people, both in the immediate organization and in the external environment 4. Autonomy: the degree to which the job allows the individual substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to schedule the work and determine the procedures for carrying it out 5. Feedback: the degree to which the job activities give the individual direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance Figure 6.2 shows that these five job characteristics, operating through the critical psychological states, affect a variety of personal and work outcomes:  High internal work motivation (that is, intrinsic motivation),  High-quality work performance,  High satisfaction with the work, and  Low absenteeism and turnover. The figure also suggests that individual differences play a role in job design. Several apparent weaknesses in the theory have also come to light. First, the measures used to test the theory are not always as valid and reliable as they should be. Further, the role of individual differences frequently has not been supported by research. Finally, guidelines for implementation are not specific, so managers usually tailor them to their own particular circumstances. II. EMPLOYEE PARTICIPATION AND INVOLVEMENT Employee motivation can also be enhanced in some cases through the use of participation and empowerment. In a sense, participation and empowerment are extensions of job design because each fundamentally alters how employees in an organization perform their jobs. Participation occurs when employees have a voice in decisions about their own work. Empowerment is the process of enabling workers to set their own work goals, make decisions, and solve problems within their spheres of responsibility and authority. Thus, empowerment is a somewhat broader concept that promotes participation in a wide variety of areas, including but not limited to work itself, work context, and work environment. The role of participation and empowerment in motivation can be expressed in terms of both the need-based perspectives and the expectancy theory discussed in previous chapter. By participating in decision making, employees may better understand the linkage (instrumentality) between their performance and the rewards they want most. A. Areas of Employee Participation Based on their own expertise and experience with their tasks, workers might be able to improve their own productivity.
BME 12 Lecture Notes Kingfisher School of Business and Finance, Inc. Version 1 Series of 2025 BME 12: Human Behavior in Organization “This handout is for academic purposes ONLY” Prepared by: Mark Jeffrey B. Aquino (BME 12 Instructor) It might also help to let workers make decisions about administrative matters, such as work schedules. Furthermore, employees are getting increasing opportunities to participate in broader issues of product quality. Involvement of this type has become a hallmark of successful Japanese and other international firms, and many U.S. companies have followed suit. B. Approaches to Participation and Empowerment The basic motive has been to better capitalize on the assets and capabilities inherent in all employees. Thus, many managers today prefer the term “empowerment” to “participation” because it implies a more comprehensive level of involvement. One method some firms use to empower their workers is the use of work teams. This method grew out of early attempts to use what Japanese firms call “quality circles.” This is a group of employees who voluntarily meet regularly to identify and propose solutions to problems related to quality. Work teams are collections of employees empowered to plan, organize, direct, and control their own work. The other method some organizations use to facilitate employee involvement is to change their overall method of organizing. The basic pattern is for an organization to eliminate layers from its hierarchy, thereby becoming much more decentralized. Power, responsibility, and authority are delegated as far down the organization as possible, so control of work is squarely in the hands of those who actually do it. Technology also helps organizations empower workers by making better and timelier information available to everyone in the organization. Increased responsibility does not motivate everyone. Nonetheless, empowerment can be an important management tool to increase the motivation of many employees. Practical ways to empower others include:  Articulating a clear vision and goals  Fostering personal mastery experiences to enhance self-efficacy and build skills  Modeling successful behaviors  Sending positive messages and arousing positive emotions in employees  Connecting employees with the outcomes of their work and giving them feedback  Building employee confidence by showing competence, honesty, and fairness Regardless of the specific technique used, however, empowerment only enhances organizational effectiveness if certain conditions exist. First, the organization must be sincere in its efforts to spread power and autonomy to lower levels of the organization. Second, the organization must be committed to maintaining participation and empowerment. Third, the organization must be systematic and patient in its efforts to empower workers. Finally, the organization must be prepared to increase its commitment to training. III. FLEXIBLE WORK ARRANGEMENT Beyond the actual redesigning of jobs and the use of employee involvement, many organizations today are experimenting with a variety of flexible work arrangements. Among the more popular are variable work schedules, flexible work schedules, extended work schedules, job sharing, and telecommuting. A. Variable Work Schedules Employees locked into a standard work schedule may find it necessary to take a sick or vacation day to handle routine personal business. On a more psychological level, some people may feel so powerless and constrained by their job schedules that they grow resentful and frustrated. To help counter these problems, one alternative some businesses use is a compressed work schedule. An employee following a compressed work week schedule works a full forty-hour week in fewer than the traditional five days. One problem with this schedule is that if everyone in the organization is off at the same time, the firm may have no one on duty to handle problems or deal with outsiders on the off day. On the other hand, if a company staggers days off across the workforce, people who don’t get the more desirable days off (Monday and Friday, for most people) may be jealous or resentful. Another problem is that when employees put in too much time in a single day, they tend to get tired and perform at a lower level later in the day. A popular schedule some organizations are beginning to use is called a “nine-eighty” schedule. Under this arrangement, an employee works a traditional schedule one week and a compressed schedule the next, getting every other Friday off. Finally, a special form of compressed work schedule is job sharing. In job sharing, two part-time employees share one full-time job.
BME 12 Lecture Notes Kingfisher School of Business and Finance, Inc. Version 1 Series of 2025 BME 12: Human Behavior in Organization “This handout is for academic purposes ONLY” Prepared by: Mark Jeffrey B. Aquino (BME 12 Instructor) Job sharing may be desirable for people who only want to work part time or when job markets are tight. For its part, the organization can accommodate the preferences of a broader range of employees and may benefit from the talents of more people. B. Extended Work Schedules An extended work schedule is one that requires relatively long periods of work followed by relatively long periods of paid time off. These schedules are most often used when the cost of transitioning from one worker to another is high and there are efficiencies associated with having a small workforce. While the specific number of hours and days and the amount of vacation time vary, most of these job settings are characterized by long periods of work followed by an extended vacation plus premium pay. Offshore drilling platform workers at ExxonMobil, for instance, generally work every day for five weeks and then have two weeks off. C. Flexible Work Schedules Another popular alternative work arrangement is flexible work schedules, sometimes called flextime. Flextime usually gives employees more personal control over the hours they work each day. Figure 6.3 illustrates how flextime works. The workday is broken down into two categories: flexible time and core time. All employees must be at their workstations during core time, but they can choose their own schedules during flexible time. The major advantage of this approach, as already noted, is that workers get to tailor their workday to fit their personal needs. On the other hand, flextime is more difficult to manage because others in the organization may not be sure when a person will be available for meetings other than during the core time. Some organizations use a plan in which workers set their own hours but then must follow that schedule each day. Others allow workers to modify their own schedule each day. D. Alternative Workplaces Another recent innovation in work arrangements is the use of alternative workplaces. The most common version of this approach is usually called telecommuting – allowing employees to spend part of their time working off-site, usually at home. On the plus side, many employees like telecommuting because it gives them added flexibility. Some employees also feel that they get more work done by staying at home because they are less likely to be interrupted. Organizations may benefit for several reasons as well: (1) they can reduce absenteeism and turnover since employees will need to take less “formal” time off, and (2) they can save on facilities such as parking spaces because fewer people will be at work on any given day. On the other hand, although many employees thrive under this arrangement, others do not. Some feel isolated and miss the social interaction of the workplace. Others simply lack the self-control and discipline to work from home. Managers may also encounter coordination difficulties in scheduling meetings and other activities that require face-to-face contact. IV. GOAL SETTING AND MOTIVATION From a motivational perspective, a goal is a meaningful objective. Goals are used for two purposes in most organizations. First, they provide a useful framework for managing motivation. Second, goals are an effective control device (control meaning the monitoring by management of how well the organization is performing). Social learning theory perhaps best describes the role and importance of goal setting in organizations. People’s degree of pride at reaching their goals or disappointment at not reaching their goals is affected by their self-efficacy, the extent to which they feel that they can still meet their goals even if they failed to do so in the past. A. Goal-Setting Theory The research of Edwin Locke and his associates most clearly established the utility of goal-setting theory in a motivational context. Locke’s goal-setting theory of motivation assumes that behavior is a result of conscious goals and intentions. Therefore, by setting goals for people in the organization, a manager should be able to influence their behavior. Given this premise, the challenge is to develop a thorough understanding of the processes by which people set their goals and then work to reach them. In the original version of goal-setting theory, two specific goal characteristics—goal difficulty and goal specificity—were expected to shape performance.